فیلوجامعه‌شناسی

تایم لاین نظریه اجتماعی (۲۰۰۰-۱۴۰۶)

فرستادن به ایمیل چاپ

جان لمیچ در دائره‌المعارف نظریه‌های جامعه‌شناسی بلکول/ جرج ریتزر (۲۰۰۵)






▀█▄ EARLY ROOTS
1406 → Abdel Rahman Ibn-Khaldun dies, leaving written works on social topics that closely resemble the sociology of today. 

▀█▄ EARLY ENLIGHTENMENT
1651 → Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan announces that “Life is nasty, brutish and short.”
1690 → John Locke publishes Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Second Treatise on Government. 

▀█▄ 18TH CENTURY
1739 → David Hume’s Treatise on Human Nature insists on studying human nature through observation rather than through pure philosophy.
1748 → Hume publishes An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
1748 → Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu anonymously publishes The Spirit of Laws.
1751 → Hume completes his Enquiry Concerning the Principals of Morals.
1762 → With Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract, we go from a “stupid and unimaginative animal” to “an intelligent being and a man.”
1776 → The Age of Revolution begins, and the flames are fanned by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.
1776 → Adam Smith releases An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.
1776 → A landmark of the American Revolution and statement of political theory, the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America is published.
1781 → Immanuel Kant argues against Hume’s radical empiricism in Critique of Pure Reason.
1788 → Kant publishes Critique of Practical Reason, emphasizing free will.
1789 → Jeremy Bentham develops a theory of social morals based on the greatest happiness principle in Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation.
1791 → Olympe de Gouges, a butcher’s daughter, writes an alternate version of Declaration of the Rights of Man titled Declaration of the Rights of Woman.
1792 → Mary Wollstonecraft publishes A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, urging women to “acquire strength.”
1792 → Parisians storm the Bastille, beginning the French Revolution.
1798 → Thomas Malthus theorizes on the social and demographic effects of scarcity with his Essay on the Principle of Population.


▀█▄ 1800–1850
1807 → Georg Hegel publishes the Phenomenology of Spirit.
1817 → David Ricardo offers a new vision for political economy with The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation.
1821 → Claude-Henry de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon publishes The Industrial System.
1837 → Hegel publishes the Philosophy of History.
1838 → Harriet Martineau’s How to Observe Morals and Manners argues that the goal of sociology is to describe the historically situated relationship between manners and morals.
1840 → Alexis de Tocqueville, a French intellectual, offered an early insight into Democracy in America.
1841 → Ludwig Feuerbach’s The Essence of Christianity articulates a materialist influence contrary to Hegelian idealism, inspiring Karl Marx.
1830– Auguste Comte describes a positivistic, evolutionary
1842 → view of the world in his Positive Philosophy.
1843 → Feuerbach inspires secular, humanistic, scientific study of human behavior with The Philosophy of the Future.
1843 → J. S. Mill publishes System of Logic in which he refines logic in its applications to social as well as purely natural phenomena.
1844 → Friedrich Engels publishes Outline of a Critique of Political Economy.
1844 → Karl Marx completes what will become known as his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844; however, the manuscript is not published in entirety until 1932. The manuscript highlights Marx’s early humanistic thinking.
1846 → Marx publishes The German Ideology, proposing a study of historical materialism.
1848 → Marx and Engels publish and distribute The Communist Manifesto, which serves as a clarion call for revolution based on Marx’s theoretical principles.
1848 → Workers revolt across Europe.
1848 → Mill debates the ideas of socialism in his Principles of Political Economy.


▀█▄ 1850–1900
1850 → Herbert Spencer publishes Social Statics, developing his basic ideas of social structure and change, as well as arguing for rights for women and children.
1851 → Feuerbach publishes Lectures on the Essence of Religion.
1851 → The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations is held in London, primarily inside the iron-andglass Crystal Palace. It is the first of a series of extravagant world fairs that proclaim the arrival of the industrial revolution.
1852 → Marx offers an analysis of the French Revolution titled The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.
1856 → Tocqueville publishes Ancien Regime in Old Europe.
1858 → Marx develops ideas that will later be refined in Capital in Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy.
1859 → Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of the Species. With Darwinian evolutionary theory, biology takes its first real steps into philosophy’s traditional terrain.
1859 → Mill publishes On Liberty, echoing Tocqueville’s fears about democracy.
1863 → Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation decrees that all slaves in the United States “shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free.”
1865 → The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution abolishes slavery.
1867 → Marx publishes Volume 1 of Capital: A Critique of Political Economy.
1871 → The Paris Commune is formed.
1872 → Friedrich Nietzsche publishes The Birth of Tragedy, Out of the Spirit of Music declaring that modern Europe is Apollonian in spirit and needs a recovery of the Dionysian.
1873 → Spencer publishes Study of Sociology, the textbook used in the first course in sociology in the United States.
1882 → Nietzsche publishes The Gay Science pronouncing that God is dead.
1877– Spencer publishes the three volumes of The Principles of
1882 → Sociology, which later inspire Sumner’s concept of social Darwinism.
1884 → Marx (posthumously) publishes Volume 2 of Capital: A Critique of Political Economy.
1884 → Engels publishes The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State, declaring that women’s subordination is the result of society, not biology.
1887 → Ferdinand Tönnies publishes Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, comparing urban and small town society.
1890 → William James publishes Principles of Psychology before Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic methods have become widespread.
1890 → Gabriel Tarde discusses the difference between the imitative and the inventive in Laws of Imitation.
1893 → Émile Durkheim publishes The Division of Labor in Society explicating the evolution from mechanical to organic solidarity.
1894 → Volume 3 of Marx’s Capital is published.
1894 → Durkheim joins Emile Zola and Jean Jaures in defending Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew unfairly accused of spying. The affair highlighted French anti-Semitism, which Durkheim saw as a deep social pathology.
1895 → Durkheim develops the notion of a social fact, the basis for positivism in modern sociology, in Rules of Sociological Method.
1897 → Durkheim publishes Suicide an application of the principles of the new method of sociology. He shows that suicide is a social fact, not an individual problem.
1899 → Thorstein Veblen coins the now-famous term “conspicuous consumption” in his Theory of the Leisure Class.


▀█▄ 1900–1910
1900 → Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams, an early statement of Freud’s psychoanalytic principals.
1900– In Logical Investigations, Edmund Husserl establishes
1901 → the basis for the science of phenomenology.
1900 → Georg Simmel finishes his Philosophy of Money, a wideranging analysis that points to, among other things, the tragedy of culture.
1900 → The most well-known World’s Fair in Paris exhibits the latest industrial marvels.
1902 → Charles H. Cooley publishes Human Nature and Social Order at the University of Michigan. His work there is closely associated with the Chicago School.
1903 → W. E. B. Du Bois writes The Souls of Black Folk, introducing the important concepts of double consciousness and the veil.
1903 → Durkheim publishes Moral Education.
1904 → Robert Park publishes The Crowd and the Public.
1905 → Max Weber relates the idea systems of Calvinism to the emergence of the “iron cage” in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
1907 → William James publishes Pragmatism, which later inspires the development of symbolic interactionism.
1907 → William G. Sumner first develops the concept of social Darwinism in his book Folkways.
1908 → Georg Simmel publishes Soziologie, a wide-ranging set of essays on social phenomena reflecting Simmel’s distinctive approach.


▀█▄ 1910–1920
1911 → In Political Parties, Roberto Michels devises the Iron Law of Oligarchy to explain how oligarchy develops in bureaucracy.
1912 → In Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Émile Durkheim introduces anthropological evidence to argue that religious experience lies at the foundation of the social order.
1913 → The term “behaviorism” is first used by J. B. Watson.
1914 → World War I begins.
1915 → Vifredo Pareto publishes General Treatise on Sociology a systemic, equilibrium-based theory of society.
1916 → Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics forms the basis for structuralism.
1916 → Lenin advances Marx’s ideas in Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism, identifying the inherent global expansionistic tendencies of capitalist societies.
1917 → The Russian Revolution, inspired by Marxist ideals, overthrows the Czars.
1918 → With Florian Znaniecki, W. I. Thomas publishes The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, a study that draws on multiple investigative methods.
1919 → Pitrim Sorokin’s System of Sociology lays out his theory of cultural organization and helps develop the ontology of integralism.


▀█▄ 1920–1930
1920 → American women win the right to vote.
1921 → Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess write the first major textbook in sociology: Introduction to the Science of Sociology.
1922 → Weber’s Economy and Society, his comparative historical social theory, is published in three volumes.
1922 → Bronislaw Malinowski discusses indirect exchange in the Kula rings of the Trobriand Islands in Argonauts of the Western Pacific.
1922 → Sir James G. Fraser’s controversial The Golden Bough shows that the Christian story of the man-god sacrificed on the tree is borrowed from other ancient myths.
1922 → Cooley introduces the concept of the “looking-glass self” in Human Nature and the Social Order.
1923 → György Lukács publishes History and Class Consciousness.
1923 → The Institute of Social Research, also known as the Frankfurt School, is founded.
1923 → Ernst Cassirer publishes the first part of “The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms,” a series that examines various forms of symbolic representation.
1924 → John Maynard Keynes offers a brilliant analysis of the effects of inflation and deflation in his most influential work, A Tract on Monetary Reform.
1925 → Marcel Mauss develops his theory of gift exchange in The Gift.
1925 → Burgess and Park publish The City.
1925 → Maurice Halbwachs publishes The Social Frameworks of Memory, a pioneering text in social memory studies.
1927 → Martin Heidegger publishes Being and Time.
1928 → Margaret Mead drops the proof for her controversial Coming of Age in Samoa off at the publisher before embarking for New Guinea.
1929 → Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch found the Annales School, which is famous for its work on social history.
1929 → Karl Mannheim develops his sociology of knowledge in Ideology and Utopia.
1929 → The U.S. stock market crashes, leading to a worldwide depression.


▀█▄ 1930–1940
1930 → Psychiatrist J. L. Moreno invents sociometry, the keystone concept for network exchange theory.
1932 → Alfred Schütz’s The Phenomenology of the Social World extends the philosophy of phenomenology into social theory.
1933 → Nazis open the first concentration camp at Dachau.
1934 → George H. Mead’s lectures are compiled and published as Mind, Self and Society, the basic text for symbolic interactionism.
1935 → Mannheim proposes a planned society in Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction.
1936 → Keynes publishes General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, the text that immortalizes his economic theory.
1937 → Talcott Parsons publishes the Structure of Social Action, in which he introduces grand European theory to an American audience.
1938 → B. F. Skinner publishes The Behavior of Organisms.
1939 → The first shots of World War II are fired as German forces invade Poland.
1939 → Norbert Elias publishes The Civilizing Process in which he links changes in everyday life to changes in broader social structure.


▀█▄ 1940–1950
1940 → A. R. Radcliffe-Brown writes Structure and Function in Primitive Society, which has a great influence on structural functionalism.
1927– Walter Benjamin compiles his notes on the Paris
1940 → Arcades, which are published as Das Passagen-Werk in
1982.
1941 → At Auschwitz, Nazis begin the use of Zyklon-B gas to murder Jews.
1942 → Margaret Mead’s Growing Up in New Guinea draws a parallel between the primitive Manus and Western civilization.
1942 → Joseph Schumpeter revises Marx’s predictions on the downfall of capitalism in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy.
1943 → Jean-Paul Sartre elaborates contemporary existentialism in Being and Nothingness, partially written in a German war prison from 1940–1941.
1944 → Karl Polanyi analyzes the industrial revolution, free trade, and socialism in The Great Transformation.
1945 → In the same year, Hitler commits suicide as America unleashes the atom bomb on Japan.
1947 → In The Accursed Share, Georges Bataille values the concepts of excess, waste, and sacrifice in his social theory.
1948 → Alfred Kinsey publishes The Sexual Behavior of the Human Male along with Wardell Pomeroy and Clyde Martin.
1949 → Talcott Parsons publishes Essays in Sociological Theory, Pure and Applied.
1949 → Claude Lévi-Strauss publishes Elementary Structures of Kinship.
1949 → Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno seek to explain why the Enlightenment failed to deliver on its promises of progress, reason, and order in The Dialectic of Enlightenment.
1949 → Robert Merton publishes Social Theory and Social Structure.
1949 → Simone de Beauvoir publishes The Second Sex in which she provides an existential analysis of the concept of woman.


▀█▄ 1950–1960
1950 → David Reisman’s The Lonely Crowd develops the concepts of inner- and other-directedness.
1951 → C. Wright Mills publishes White Collar, a critical analysis of the work lives of Americans.
1951 → Parsons publishes The Social System and Toward a General Theory of Action, which further refine his structural-functional theory and develop action theory.
1952 → The American Psychiatric Association publishes the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-I).
1954 → Abraham Maslow delineates his famous hierarchy of needs in Motivation and Personality.
1955 → L. J. Moreno gives his book, Sociometry, to the American Sociological Association for publication.
1956 → Mills publishes The Power Elite, anticipating Dwight Eisenhower’s ideas on the military-industrial complex.
1956 → Ralf Dahrendorf’s Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society becomes the basic text in conflict theory.
1956 → Lewis Coser publishes The Functions of Social Conflict in which he integrates Simmel’s ideas on conflict with a structural-functional approach.
1957 → Roland Barthes examines myths and cultural objects as a language of signs in society in Mythologies.
1958 → John K. Galbraith’s The Affluent Society challenges the American myth of consumer sovereignty.
1959 → Karl R. Popper debates the philosophy and rules of science in The Logic of Scientific Discovery.
1959 → Mills articulates his famous view of sociology in The Sociological Imagination, where he also critiques Parsons’s structural functionalism.
1959 → Erving Goffman develops his dramaturgical theory and famous ideas of front- and backstage in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.


▀█▄ 1960–1970
1961 → George C. Homans publishes Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, the pioneering text in exchange theory.
1962 → Richard Emerson’s article, “Power-Dependence Relations” is published in the American Sociological Review.
1962 → Thomas Kuhn develops a revolutionary rather than evolutionary theory of the advance of science in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. This book also popularizes the term paradigm.
1963 → Goffman publishes Stigma, a critical book for labeling theory.
1963 → 200,000 people march for civil rights in Washington, D.C. Martin Luther King Jr. gives his famous “I Have a Dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial.
1963 → The second wave of feminism is marked by Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique.
1964 → Peter Blau develops a micro-macro theory of exchange in Exchange and Power in Social Life.
1964 → Marshall McLuhan declares that the medium is the message in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man.
1964 → Herbert Marcuse publishes One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society describing society’s destructive impact on people.
1965 → Michel Foucault’s Madness and Civilization is published.
1966 → William Masters and Virginia Johnson publish Human Sexual Response, introducing large numbers of people to the study of sexuality.
1966 → Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann’s The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge extends phenomenology to macrolevel issues.
1967 → Jacques Derrida finishes On Grammatology, which becomes a central text in the emerging field of poststructuralism.
1967 → Guy Debord publishes The Society of the Spectacle, a critique of media and consumption in contemporary social life.
1967 → Harold Garfinkel’s Studies in Ethnomethodology creates a new micro-social theory.
1968 → Student revolts form an epicenter in Paris and sweep through Europe.
1969 → Herbert Blumer publishes Symbolic Interactionism: Perspectives and Methods, offering an overview of the symbolic interactionist perspective.


▀█▄ 1970–1980
1970 → Alvin Gouldner’s The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology critiques many trends in Western sociology, especially Parsonsian structural functionalism.
1970 → Jean Baudrillard releases Consumer Society: Myths and Structures, a groundbreaking text in the studies of consumption.
1971 → Jürgen Habermas relates material interest to idea systems in Knowledge and Human Interests.
1972 → The demolition of the modernist Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis marks the end of the reign of modernity for some postmodernist theorists.
1973 → Howard Becker publishes Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, a key text in the sociology of deviance.
1973 → Baudrillard’s The Mirror of Production marks his break from his Marxian roots.
1973 → Clifford Geertz publishes The Interpretation of Cultures.
1974 → Herbert Marcuse publishes Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud where he translates Freud for critical theory.
1974 → The first part of Immanuel Wallerstein’s 3-volume The Modern World System shifts the focus of Marxian theory to exploitation between nations on a global scale.
1974 → First issue of Theory & Society published.
1974 → Luce Irigaray’s Speculum of the Other Woman argues that psychoanalysis is phallocentric and thus has no place for the feminine.
1974 → Daniel Bell’s The Coming of Post-Industrial Society predicts the coming of “knowledge society.”
1974 → Goffman’s Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience creates a new theoretical methodology.
1974 → Glen H. Elder Jr. argues for a life course perspective in social psychology in Children of the Great Depression.
1974 → Henri LeFebvre publishes The Production of Space provoking social analysis of space.
1975 → Randall Collins publishes Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science, in which Collins develops a micro orientation to conflict theory.
1975 → E. O. Wilson introduces the term sociobiology in SocioBiology: The New Synthesis.
1975 → Foucault publishes Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison in which he depicts the origins of the carceral society.
1976 → Baudrillard argues that the modern world has lost the ability to engage in symbolic exchange in Symbolic Exchange and Death.
1977 → Pierre Bourdieu publishes Outline of a Theory of Practice formulating his constructivist structuralism and his concepts of habitus and field.
1978 → Marcuse publishes The Aesthetic Dimension: Toward a Critique of Marxist Aesthetics.
1978 → In The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender, Nancy Chodorow draws on object relations theories to rethink gender and the mother-child relationship.
1978 → Edward Said’s Orientalism opens cultural studies to postcolonial theory.
1979 → Arlie Hochschild’s article “Emotion Work, Feeling Rules and Social Structure” is published, introducing social theorists to the effects of emotional labor.
1979 → Theda Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions shows that state structures, international forces, and class relations contribute to revolutionary transformations.
1979 → Jean-Francois Lyotard publishes The Postmodern Condition.
1979 → Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar publish Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts, a key document for the social studies of science; it also inspires actor network theory.
1979 → Richard Rorty’s Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature rejects foundationalist and essentialist epistemologies and argues for the merits of pragmatic philosophy.


▀█▄ 1980–1990
1980 → Foucault publishes the first of his three-volume opus, The History of Sexuality, major works on poststructuralist and queer theory.
1980 → In a famous essay of the same name, Stuart Hall introduces the “Encoding/Decoding” model of television viewing, arguing that audiences interpret the meaning of programs in many ways.
1980 → Adrienne Rich writes her essay “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence,” creating the lesbian continuum and coining the term compulsory heterosexuality.
1982 → First issue of Theory, Culture and Society is published.
1982 → Niklas Luhmann develops his distinctive version of systems theory in The Differentiation of Society.
1982– Jeffrey Alexander releases Theoretical Logic in Sociology
1983 → in four volumes, paralleling Parsons’s The Structure of Social Action, synthesizing and updating functionalism.
1983 → Cook, Emerson, Gillmore, and Yamagishi publish “The Distribution of Power in Exchange Networks: Theory and Experimental Results.”
1983 → Baudrillard’s Simulations develops the concepts of simulation and simulacra in society.
1983 → Nancy Hartsock publishes “The Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism,” an article crucial to the definition of standpoint theory.
1983 → Hochschild publishes The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling.
1983 → The first issue of Sociological Theory is published.
1983 → French philosopher Paul Ricoeur publishes volume 1 of Time and Narrative, a series that describes the centrality of narrative to lived experience.
1984 → Pierre Bourdieu publishes Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste in which he applies his constructivist structuralism to consumption and culture in France.
1984 → Anthony Giddens publishes The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, the most complete statement of his structuration theory.
1984 → Habermas publishes The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, Reason and the Rationalization of Society, reinterpreting and extending Weber’s social theory and developing his ideas of communicative rationality.
1985 → Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari oppose psychoanalysis and offer a political analysis of desire in Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia.
1985 → Robert Bellah et al. publish Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life, a micromacro look at democratic community and individualism.
1985 → Jonathan Turner’s essay, “In Defense of Positivism” is published.
1986 → Ulrich Beck completes Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, which begins a widespread interest in the concept of risk in late modern life.
1986 → Jacques Lacan publishes Écrits, in which he revises Freud’s psychoanalysis in the context of Saussurian linguistics.
1986 → Paul Virilio publishes Speed and Politics, introducing the concept of speed to social theory.
1987 → Dorothy Smith combines phenomenology and feminism in The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology.
1987 → Habermas explores the colonization of the lifeworld in The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2, Lifeworld and System, a Critique of Functionalist Reason.
1988 → Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman declare, in Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, that the mass media is used as a tool of political propaganda.
1989 → In The Sublime Object of Ideology, Slavoj _i_ek draws on Lacanian psychoanalysis to develop his theory of ideology critique and cultural analysis.
1989 → Zygmunt Bauman argues that the Holocaust is a consequence of modernity in Modernity and the Holocaust.
1989 → David Harvey introduces the idea of time-space compression and develops social geography in The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change.
1989 → In his influential Sources of the Self, Charles Taylor explores the cultural and intellectual origins of modern selfhood.


▀█▄ 1990–2000
1990 → James S. Coleman publishes Foundations of Social Theory, laying the foundations for sociologically relevant rational choice theory.
1990 → Judith Butler calls for the subversion of the hegemony of gender in Gender Trouble.
1990 → Giddens publishes The Consequences of Modernity, introducing the idea of the juggernaut of modernity.
1990 → Donna Haraway’s essay “A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism” becomes an important postmodern contribution to feminist theory.
1990 → Patricia Hill Collins publishes Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and Empowerment, where, among other things, she develops the concept of intersectionality.
1991 → Frederic Jameson writes Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism.
1991 → Kenneth Gergen publishes The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life, an account of the chaos of postmodern selfhood.
1992 → Marc Augé publishes Non-Places: An Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity.
1992 → Roland Robertson’s Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture, building on his work in religion, develops a series of ideas, including the concept of glocalization.
1992 → Paul Gilroy revisits the origins of Atlantic African cultural diaspora in The Black Atlantic.
1993 → George Ritzer extends Weber’s theory of rationalization to the realm of consumption and culture in The McDonaldization of Society.
1994 → Cornell West publishes Race Matters.
1995 → Luhmann’s Social Systems further develops his version of systems theory.
1996 → Manuel Castells conceives of a world dominated by the flow of information in The Rise of the Network Society.
1996 → Arjun Appadurai develops his concept of global “scapes” in Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization.
1997 → Chomsky publishes “Media Control: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda.”
1998 → Patricia Hill Collins’s Fighting Words: Black Women and the Search for Justice further develops her theory of intersectionality.
1999 → David Willer publishes Network Exchange Theory.
2000 → In Empire, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri propose that the age of imperialism is over, being replaced by an empire without a national base.

 

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